Religion is an abstract concept that combines beliefs, values and practices. It has a wide semantic range, and as a result the definition of religion varies widely. It is one of the most difficult concepts to define and has generated many theories, scholarly debates, and books. The definition of religion reflects how it has evolved over the years, with different historical, social, and cultural influences. The variety of practices currently said to fall within the category of religion raises issues similar to those that face other abstract concepts used to sort types of cultural phenomena, such as literature, democracy or culture itself.
There are two main approaches to understanding what is religion. One, the functional approach, looks at the positive benefits that religion may offer society. This approach, which has been popular in sociology, looks at religions and other institutions to see how they have evolved over time and the factors that led to their success or failure.
The other approach, the substantive definition, is concerned with how religion makes people feel and acts, irrespective of their beliefs. This approach has been popular in philosophy and in sociology. Substantive definitions of religion often challenge the image of human beings as passive and inactive, arguing that they act in the service of a belief system to assert their dignity and power over themselves and others.
Some scholars have argued that a definition that emphasizes feelings or actions is too broad. They argue that it excludes a large number of religious beliefs and behaviors, including the belief in an afterlife, supernatural beings and explicit metaphysics. Other scholars have pushed back against this view, pointing to the ways that a definition allowing for a variety of religious behavior can be more useful than a rigid one.
Many studies of religion use a combination of both functional and substantive definitions, and the term is also used in a more general way to refer to any group of ritualized activities. The study of religion is a multi-disciplinary field that draws from the fields of anthropology, sociology, history, and psychology among others.
Anthropological studies of religion generally look at the development of religions from a biological and evolutionary perspective. For example, they consider the survival advantages that religion might have offered primitive hunter-gatherer groups in creating solidarity. Sociological approaches, like Rodney Stark’s work on the spread of Christianity in Europe and India, seek to understand how religions have adapted to changing social circumstances.
The psychological study of religion examines the causes of religious beliefs and behaviors, using a wide range of research methodologies. These studies have been influenced by such thinkers as Sigmund Freud (Oedipus complex, Illusion), Carl Jung (Universal archetypes), Erich Fromm (Fear of death, Need for a stable frame of reference), William James (personal religious experience, Pragmatism) and others. The most recent studies have shifted the focus away from hidden mental states to examining the structures that produce them. These studies have been called the “structuralist turn” in sociology of religion.